Joe linkedin photon kinetics

Neurons typically utilize two primary classes of signaling molecules for transmitting information: small molecule neurotransmitters, responsible for fast synaptic transmission, and neuromodulators, predominantly involved in slow, non-synaptic transmission^1,2.

Neuropeptides represent the most diverse group of neuromodulators in the human body, encompassing more than 100 distinct types, and they exert their functions through G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs)^3,4,5. Neuropeptides and small molecule neurotransmitters are typically stored in large dense-core vesicles (LDCVs) and synaptic vesicles (SVs)⁶, respectively, which likely have distinct properties that govern their activity-dependent release^3,7,8.

Early studies have demonstrated that the neuropeptide and the small molecule neurotransmitter induced slow and fast exc